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Microphysiological stem cell models of the human heart

Materials Today Bio

2022 Mar 01

Arslan, U;Moruzzi, A;Nowacka, J;Mummery, C;Eckardt, D;Loskill, P;Orlova, V;
| DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2022.100259

Models of heart disease and drug responses are increasingly based on human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) since their ability to capture human heart (dys-)function is often better than animal models. Simple monolayer cultures of hPSC-derived cardiomyocytes, however, have shortcomings. Some of these can be overcome using more complex, multi cell-type models in 3D. Here we review modalities that address this, describe efforts to tailor readouts and sensors for monitoring tissue- and cell physiology (exogenously and in situ) and discuss perspectives for implementation in industry and academia.
A multi-center retrospective cohort study defines the spectrum of kidney pathology in Coronavirus 2019 Disease (COVID-19).

Kidney International

2021 Aug 01

May, R;Cassol, C;Hannoudi, A;Larsen, C;Lerma, E;Haun, R;Braga, J;Hassen, S;Wilson, J;VanBeek, C;Vankalakunti, M;Barnum, L;Walker, P;Bourne, T;Messias, N;Ambruzs, J;Boils, C;Sharma, S;Cossey, L;Baxi, P;Palmer, M;Zuckerman, J;Walavalkar, V;Urisman, A;Gallan, A;Al-Rabadi, L;Rodby, R;Luyckx, V;Espino, G;Santhana-Krishnan, S;Alper, B;Lam, S;Hannoudi, G;Matthew, D;Belz, M;Singer, G;Kunaparaju, S;Price, D;Sauabh, C;Rondla, C;Abdalla, M;Britton, M;Paul, S;Ranjit, U;Bichu, P;Williamson, S;Sharma, Y;Gaspert, A;Grosse, P;Meyer, I;Vasudev, B;El Kassem, M;Velez, J;Caza, T;
| DOI: 10.1016/j.kint.2021.07.015

Kidney failure is common in patients with Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19) resulting in increased morbidity and mortality. In an international collaboration, 284 kidney biopsies were evaluated to improve understanding of kidney disease in COVID-19. Diagnoses were compared to five years of 63,575 native biopsies prior to the pandemic and 13,955 allograft biopsies to identify diseases increased in patients with COVID-19. Genotyping for APOL1 G1 and G2 alleles was performed in 107 African American and Hispanic patients. Immunohistochemistry for SARS-CoV-2 was utilized to assess direct viral infection in 273 cases along with clinical information at the time of biopsy. The leading indication for native biopsy was acute kidney injury (45.4%), followed by proteinuria with or without concurrent acute kidney injury (42.6%). There were more African American patients (44.6%) than patients of other ethnicities. The most common diagnosis in native biopsies was collapsing glomerulopathy (25.8%) which associated with high-risk APOL1 genotypes in 91.7% of cases. Compared to the five-year biopsy database, the frequency of myoglobin cast nephropathy and proliferative glomerulonephritis with monoclonal IgG deposits was also increased in patients with COVID-19 (3.3% and 1.7%, respectively), while there was a reduced frequency of chronic conditions (including diabetes mellitus, IgA nephropathy, and arterionephrosclerosis) as the primary diagnosis. In transplants, the leading indication was acute kidney injury (86.4%), for which rejection was the predominant diagnosis (61.4%). Direct SARS-CoV-2 viral infection was not identified. Thus, our multi-center large case series identified kidney diseases that disproportionately affect patients with COVID-19, demonstrated a high frequency of APOL1 high-risk genotypes within this group, with no evidence of direct viral infection within the kidney.
The Translational Landscape of SARS-CoV-2-infected Cells Reveals Suppression of Innate Immune Genes

mBio

2022 May 23

Puray-Chavez, M;Lee, N;Tenneti, K;Wang, Y;Vuong, HR;Liu, Y;Horani, A;Huang, T;Gunsten, SP;Case, JB;Yang, W;Diamond, MS;Brody, SL;Dougherty, J;Kutluay, SB;
PMID: 35604092 | DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00815-22

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) utilizes a number of strategies to modulate viral and host mRNA translation. Here, we used ribosome profiling in SARS-CoV-2-infected model cell lines and primary airway cells grown at an air-liquid interface to gain a deeper understanding of the translationally regulated events in response to virus replication. We found that SARS-CoV-2 mRNAs dominate the cellular mRNA pool but are not more efficiently translated than cellular mRNAs. SARS-CoV-2 utilized a highly efficient ribosomal frameshifting strategy despite notable accumulation of ribosomes within the slippery sequence on the frameshifting element. In a highly permissive cell line model, although SARS-CoV-2 infection induced the transcriptional upregulation of numerous chemokine, cytokine, and interferon-stimulated genes, many of these mRNAs were not translated efficiently. The impact of SARS-CoV-2 on host mRNA translation was more subtle in primary cells, with marked transcriptional and translational upregulation of inflammatory and innate immune responses and downregulation of processes involved in ciliated cell function. Together, these data reveal the key role of mRNA translation in SARS-CoV-2 replication and highlight unique mechanisms for therapeutic development. IMPORTANCE SARS-CoV-2 utilizes a number of strategies to modulate host responses to ensure efficient propagation. Here, we used ribosome profiling in SARS-CoV-2-infected cells to gain a deeper understanding of the translationally regulated events in infected cells. We found that although viral mRNAs are abundantly expressed, they are not more efficiently translated than cellular mRNAs. SARS-CoV-2 utilized a highly efficient ribosomal frameshifting strategy and alternative translation initiation sites that help increase the coding potential of its RNAs. In permissive cells, SARS-CoV-2 infection induced the translational repression of numerous innate immune mediators. Though the impact of SARS-CoV-2 on host mRNA translation was more subtle in primary airway cell cultures, we noted marked transcriptional and translational upregulation of inflammatory and innate immune responses and downregulation of processes involved in ciliated cell function. Together, these data provide new insight into how SARS-CoV-2 modulates innate host responses and highlight unique mechanisms for therapeutic intervention.
SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant causes brain infection with lymphoid depletion in a mouse COVID-19 model

Laboratory animal research

2023 May 09

Lee, NY;Lee, YW;Hong, SM;On, D;Yoon, GM;An, SH;Nam, KT;Seo, JY;Shin, JS;Choi, YK;Oh, SH;Yun, JW;Lee, HY;Choi, KS;Seong, JK;Park, JW;
PMID: 37161442 | DOI: 10.1186/s42826-023-00157-4

The Omicron variant has become the most prevalent SARS-CoV-2 variant. Omicron is known to induce milder lesions compared to the original Wuhan strain. Fatal infection of the Wuhan strain into the brain has been well documented in COVID-19 mouse models and human COVID-19 cases, but apparent infections into the brain by Omicron have not been reported in human adult cases or animal models. In this study, we investigated whether Omicron could spread to the brain using K18-hACE2 mice susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection.K18-hACE2 mice were intranasally infected with 1 × 105 PFU of the original Wuhan strain and the Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2. A follow-up was conducted 7 days post infection. All Wuhan-infected mice showed > 20% body weight loss, defined as the lethal condition, whereas two out of five Omicron-infected mice (40%) lost > 20% body weight. Histopathological analysis based on H&E staining revealed inflammatory responses in the brains of these two Omicron-infected mice. Immunostaining analysis of viral nucleocapsid protein revealed severe infection of neuron cells in the brains of these two Omicron-infected mice. Lymphoid depletion and apoptosis were observed in the spleen of Omicron-infected mice with brain infection.Lethal conditions, such as severe body weight loss and encephalopathy, can occur in Omicron-infected K18-hACE2 mice. Our study reports, for the first time, that Omicron can induce brain infection with lymphoid depletion in the mouse COVID-19 model.
Evaluation of a panel of therapeutic antibody clinical candidates for efficacy against SARS-CoV-2 in Syrian hamsters

Antiviral research

2023 Mar 30

Cong, Y;Mucker, EM;Perry, DL;Dixit, S;Kollins, E;Byrum, R;Huzella, L;Kim, R;Josleyn, M;Kwilas, S;Stefan, C;Shoemaker, CJ;Koehler, J;Coyne, S;Delp, K;Liang, J;Drawbaugh, D;Hischak, A;Hart, R;Postnikova, E;Vaughan, N;Asher, J;St Claire, M;Hanson, J;Schmaljohn, C;Eakin, AE;Hooper, JW;Holbrook, MR;
PMID: 37003305 | DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2023.105589

The COVID-19 pandemic spurred the rapid development of a range of therapeutic antibody treatments. As part of the US government's COVID-19 therapeutic response, a research team was assembled to support assay and animal model development to assess activity for therapeutics candidates against SARS-CoV-2. Candidate treatments included monoclonal antibodies, antibody cocktails, and products derived from blood donated by convalescent patients. Sixteen candidate antibody products were obtained directly from manufacturers and evaluated for neutralization activity against the WA-01 isolate of SARS-CoV-2. Products were further tested in the Syrian hamster model using prophylactic (-24 h) or therapeutic (+8 h) treatment approaches relative to intranasal SARS-CoV-2 exposure. In vivo assessments included daily clinical scores and body weights. Viral RNA and viable virus titers were quantified in serum and lung tissue with histopathology performed at 3d and 7d post-virus-exposure. Sham-treated, virus-exposed hamsters showed consistent clinical signs with concomitant weight loss and had detectable viral RNA and viable virus in lung tissue. Histopathologically, interstitial pneumonia with consolidation was present. Therapeutic efficacy was identified in treated hamsters by the absence or diminution of clinical scores, body weight loss, viral loads, and improved semiquantitative lung histopathology scores. This work serves as a model for the rapid, systematic in vitro and in vivo assessment of the efficacy of candidate therapeutics at various stages of clinical development. These efforts provided preclinical efficacy data for therapeutic candidates. Furthermore, these studies were invaluable for the phenotypic characterization of SARS CoV-2 disease in hamsters and of utility to the broader scientific community.
Diffuse alveolar damage patterns reflect the immunological and molecular heterogeneity in fatal COVID-19

EBioMedicine

2022 Aug 23

Erjefält, JS;de Souza Xavier Costa, N;Jönsson, J;Cozzolino, O;Dantas, KC;Clausson, CM;Siddhuraj, P;Lindö, C;Alyamani, M;Lombardi, SCFS;Mendroni Júnior, A;Antonangelo, L;Faria, CS;Duarte-Neto, AN;de Almeida Monteiro, RA;Rebello Pinho, JR;Gomes-Gouvêa, MS;Verciano Pereira, R;Monteiro, JS;Setubal, JC;de Oliveira, EP;Theodoro Filho, J;Sanden, C;Orengo, JM;Sleeman, MA;da Silva, LFF;Saldiva, PHN;Dolhnikoff, M;Mauad, T;
PMID: 36027872 | DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2022.104229

Severe COVID-19 lung disease exhibits a high degree of spatial and temporal heterogeneity, with different histological features coexisting within a single individual. It is important to capture the disease complexity to support patient management and treatment strategies. We provide spatially decoded analyses on the immunopathology of diffuse alveolar damage (DAD) patterns and factors that modulate immune and structural changes in fatal COVID-19.We spatially quantified the immune and structural cells in exudative, intermediate, and advanced DAD through multiplex immunohistochemistry in autopsy lung tissue of 18 COVID-19 patients. Cytokine profiling, viral, bacteria, and fungi detection, and transcriptome analyses were performed.Spatial DAD progression was associated with expansion of immune cells, macrophages, CD8+ T cells, fibroblasts, and (lymph)angiogenesis. Viral load correlated positively with exudative DAD and negatively with disease/hospital length. In all cases, enteric bacteria were isolated, and Candida parapsilosis in eight cases. Cytokines correlated mainly with macrophages and CD8+T cells. Pro-coagulation and acute repair were enriched pathways in exudative DAD whereas intermediate/advanced DAD had a molecular profile of elevated humoral and innate immune responses and extracellular matrix production.Unraveling the spatial and molecular immunopathology of COVID-19 cases exposes the responses to SARS-CoV-2-induced exudative DAD and subsequent immune-modulatory and remodeling changes in proliferative/advanced DAD that occur side-by-side together with secondary infections in the lungs. These complex features have important implications for disease management and the development of novel treatments.CNPq, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, HC-Convida, FAPESP, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, and the Swedish Heart & Lung Foundation.
Pathological involvement of placenta in COVID-19: a systematic review

Le infezioni in medicina

2022 Jun 01

Motwani, R;Deshmukh, V;Kumar, A;Kumari, C;Raza, K;Krishna, H;
PMID: 35693050 | DOI: 10.53854/liim-3002-1

The mammalian placenta, which is responsible for bonding between the mother and the fetus, is one of the first organs to develop. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection has caused a great threat to public health and affected almost all the organs including the placenta. Owing to limited available data on vertical transmission and pathological changes in the placenta of SARS-CoV-2 positive patients, we aim to review and summarize histopathological and ultrastructural changes in the placental tissue following SARS-CoV-2 infection. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2009 guidelines were used for review writing. Multiple studies have reported significant pathological changes in the placental tissue of SARS-CoV-2 positive mothers. On the other hand, some studies have demonstrated either no or very little involvement of the placental tissue. The most common pathological changes reported are fetal and maternal vascular malformation, villitis of unknown etiology, thrombus formation in the intervillous space and sub-chorionic space, and chorangiosis. Reports on vertical transmission are less in number. The observations of this review present a strong base for the pathological involvement of the placenta in SARS-CoV-2 infected mothers. However, a smaller number of original studies have been done until now, and most of them have small sample sizes and lack matched control groups, which are the big limitations for drawing an effective conclusion at this stage. Antenatal care can be improved by a better understanding of the correlation between maternal SARS-CoV-2 infection and placental pathology in COVID-19.
Binding of SARS-CoV-2 to the avb6 Integrins May Promote Severe COVID in Patients with IPF

TP105. TP105 BASIC MECHANISMS OF LUNG INFECTIONS: FROM SARS-COV-2 TO INFLUENZA

2021 May 01

Joseph, C;Peacock, T;Calver, J;John, A;Organ, L;Fainberg, H;Porte, J;Mukhopadhyay, S;Barton, L;Stroberg, E;Duval, E;Copin, M;Poissy, J;Steinestel, K;Tatler, A;Barclay, W;Jenkins, G;
| DOI: 10.1164/ajrccm-conference.2021.203.1_MeetingAbstracts.A4170

RATIONALE: Patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) have worse outcomes following COVID-19. SARSCoV-2 (2019-nCoV) spike protein (S1) harbors an RGD motif in its receptor-binding domain (RBD). Although SARS-CoV-2 is to exploit human Angiotensin Converting Enzyme-2 (ACE2) receptors for cell entry. Single Cell RNA-seq showed that normal lung expresses low levels of ACE2 with very low expression (1.5%) in Alveolar type 2 epithelial cells. It is possible that SARS-CoV-2 needs a cellular co-receptor, which could include integrins, to promote alveolar cell internalization and pneumonitis.METHODS: Solid-phase binding assays were used to investigate S1 binding to ACE2 or αv containing integrins. Pseudovirus entry assays were used to measure the internalization of SARS-CoV-2 into Human embryonic kidney 293T cells expressing different combinations of potential receptors. RNAscope was used to visualize the co-localization of SARS-CoV-2, ACE2, and integrin mRNAs. Immunohistochemistry was used to evaluate the expression of αvβ6 integrins and ACE2 in lung tissue.RESULTS: Binding assays demonstrated that the RGD containing αvβ3 and αvβ6 integrins bound robustly to the SARS-CoV-2 S1 subunit of Spike protein and overexpression of the αvβ6 integrin modestly augments ACE2 mediated SARS-CoV-2 pseudoviral entry into epithelial cells. In COVID-19 damaged lung ACE2 levels are low but the αvβ6 integrin levels are increased in alveolar epithelium whereas both ACE2 and αvβ6 integrin are increased in lung sections from idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis compared with normal lung samples. CONCLUSION: The SARS-CoV-2 S1 subunit can bind αvβ6 integrins augmenting ACE2-dependent internalization of pseudovirus. In IPF patients, ACE2 levels and αvβ6 integrin levels are increased. Increased binding of the SARS-CoV-2 to ACE2 and the αvβ6 integrin within fibrotic lung may explain the increased risk of severe COVID in patients with IPF.
Preclinical evaluation of a plant-derived SARS-CoV-2 subunit vaccine: Protective efficacy, immunogenicity, safety, and toxicity

Vaccine

2022 Jun 06

Shanmugaraj, B;Khorattanakulchai, N;Panapitakkul, C;Malla, A;Im-Erbsin, R;Inthawong, M;Sunyakumthorn, P;Hunsawong, T;Klungthong, C;Reed, MC;Kemthong, T;Suttisan, N;Malaivijitnond, S;Srimangkornkaew, P;Klinkhamhom, A;Manopwisedjaroen, S;Thitithanyanont, A;Taychakhoonavudh, S;Phoolcharoen, W;
PMID: 35697573 | DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.05.087

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an acute respiratory illness caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The prevention of SARS-CoV-2 transmission has become a global priority. Previously, we showed that a protein subunit vaccine that was developed based on the fusion of the SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain (RBD) to the Fc portion of human IgG1 (RBD-Fc), produced in Nicotiana benthamiana, and adjuvanted with alum, namely, Baiya SARS-CoV-2 Vax 1, induced potent immunological responses in both mice and cynomolgus monkeys. Hence, this study evaluated the protective efficacy, safety, and toxicity of Baiya SARS-CoV-2 Vax 1 in K18-hACE2 mice, monkeys and Wistar rats. Two doses of vaccine were administered three weeks apart on Days 0 and 21. The administration of the vaccine to K18-hACE2 mice reduced viral loads in the lungs and brains of the vaccinated animals and protected the mice against challenge with SARS-CoV-2. In monkeys, the results of safety pharmacology tests, general clinical observations, and a core battery of studies of three vital systems, namely, the central nervous, cardiovascular, and respiratory systems, did not reveal any safety concerns. The toxicology study of the vaccine in rats showed no vaccine-related pathological changes, and all the animals remained healthy under the conditions of this study. Furthermore, the vaccine did not cause any abnormal toxicity in rats and was clinically tolerated even at the highest tested concentration. In addition, general health status, body temperature, local toxicity at the administration site, hematology, and blood chemistry parameters were also monitored. Overall, this work presents the results of the first systematic study of the safety profile of a plant-derived vaccine, Baiya SARS-CoV-2 Vax 1; this approach can be considered a viable strategy for the development of vaccines against COVID-19.
Restriction of SARS-CoV-2 replication in the human placenta

Placenta

2022 Jul 01

Takada, K;Shimodai-Yamada, S;Suzuki, M;Trinh, Q;Takano, C;Kawakami, K;Asai-Sato, M;Komatsu, A;Okahashi, A;Nagano, N;Misawa, T;Yamaguchi, K;Suzuki, T;Kawana, K;Morioka, I;Yamada, H;Hayakawa, S;Hao, H;Komine-Aizawa, S;
| DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2022.07.010

Although SARS-CoV-2 can infect human placental tissue, vertical transmission is rare. Therefore, the placenta may function as a barrier to inhibit viral transmission to the foetus, though the mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, we confirmed the presence of the SARS-CoV-2 genome in human placental tissue by in situ hybridization with antisense probes targeting the spike protein; tissue staining was much lower when using sense probes for the spike protein. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first evidence directly indicating inefficient viral replication in the SARS-CoV-2-infected placenta. Additional studies are required to reveal the detailed mechanisms.
Bafilomycin A1 inhibits SARS-CoV-2 infection in a human lung xenograft mouse model

Virology journal

2023 Jan 31

Zhang, C;Wei, B;Liu, Z;Yao, W;Li, Y;Lu, J;Ge, C;Yu, X;Li, D;Zhu, Y;Shang, C;Jin, N;Li, X;
PMID: 36721152 | DOI: 10.1186/s12985-023-01971-x

Coronavirus disease 2019 is a global pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2. The emergence of its variant strains has posed a considerable challenge to clinical treatment. Therefore, drugs capable of inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 infection, regardless of virus variations, are in urgently need. Our results showed that the endosomal acidification inhibitor, Bafilomycin A1 (Baf-A1), had an inhibitory effect on the viral RNA synthesis of SARS-CoV-2, and its Beta and Delta variants at the concentration of 500 nM. Moreover, the human lung xenograft mouse model was used to investigate the anti-SARS-CoV-2 effect of Baf-A1. It was found that Baf-A1 significantly inhibited SARS-CoV-2 replication in the human lung xenografts by in situ hybridization and RT-PCR assays. Histopathological examination showed that Baf-A1 alleviated SARS-CoV-2-induced diffuse inflammatory infiltration of granulocytes and macrophages and alveolar endothelial cell death in human lung xenografts. In addition, immunohistochemistry analysis indicated that Baf-A1 decreased inflammatory exudation and infiltration in SARS-CoV-2-infected human lung xenografts. Therefore, Baf-A1 may be a candidate drug for SARS-CoV-2 treatment.
Placental SARS-CoV-2 distribution correlates with level of tissue oxygenation in COVID-19-associated necrotizing histiocytic intervillositis/perivillous fibrin deposition

Placenta

2021 Dec 02

Mao, Q;Chu, S;Shapiro, S;Young, L;Russo, M;De Paepe, ME;
PMID: 34929459 | DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2021.12.002

Recent evidence supports the - rare - occurrence of vertical transplacental SARS-CoV-2 transmission. We previously determined that placental expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), the SARS-CoV-2 receptor, and associated viral cell entry regulators is upregulated by hypoxia. In the present study, we utilized a clinically relevant model of SARS-CoV-2-associated chronic histiocytic intervillositis/massive perivillous fibrin deposition (CHIV/MPFVD) to test the hypothesis that placental hypoxia may facilitate placental SARS-CoV-2 infection.We performed a comparative immunohistochemical and/or RNAscope in-situ hybridization analysis of carbonic anhydrase IX (CAIX, hypoxia marker), ACE2 and SARS-CoV-2 expression in free-floating versus fibrin-encased chorionic villi in a 20-weeks' gestation placenta with SARS-CoV-2-associated CHIV/MPVFD.The levels of CAIX and ACE2 immunoreactivity were significantly higher in trophoblastic cells of fibrin-encased villi than in those of free-floating villi, consistent with hypoxia-induced ACE2 upregulation. SARS-CoV-2 showed a similar preferential localization to trophoblastic cells of fibrin-encased villi.The localization of SARS-CoV-2 to hypoxic, fibrin-encased villi in this placenta with CHIV/MPVFD suggests placental infection and, therefore, transplacental SARS-CoV-2 transmission may be promoted by hypoxic conditions, mediated by ACE2 and similar hypoxia-sensitive viral cell entry mechanisms. Understanding of a causative link between placental hypoxia and SARS-CoV-2 transmittability may potentially lead to the development of alternative strategies for prevention of intrauterine COVID-19 transmission.

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Description
sense
Example: Hs-LAG3-sense
Standard probes for RNA detection are in antisense. Sense probe is reverse complent to the corresponding antisense probe.
Intron#
Example: Mm-Htt-intron2
Probe targets the indicated intron in the target gene, commonly used for pre-mRNA detection
Pool/Pan
Example: Hs-CD3-pool (Hs-CD3D, Hs-CD3E, Hs-CD3G)
A mixture of multiple probe sets targeting multiple genes or transcripts
No-XSp
Example: Hs-PDGFB-No-XMm
Does not cross detect with the species (Sp)
XSp
Example: Rn-Pde9a-XMm
designed to cross detect with the species (Sp)
O#
Example: Mm-Islr-O1
Alternative design targeting different regions of the same transcript or isoforms
CDS
Example: Hs-SLC31A-CDS
Probe targets the protein-coding sequence only
EnEmProbe targets exons n and m
En-EmProbe targets region from exon n to exon m
Retired Nomenclature
tvn
Example: Hs-LEPR-tv1
Designed to target transcript variant n
ORF
Example: Hs-ACVRL1-ORF
Probe targets open reading frame
UTR
Example: Hs-HTT-UTR-C3
Probe targets the untranslated region (non-protein-coding region) only
5UTR
Example: Hs-GNRHR-5UTR
Probe targets the 5' untranslated region only
3UTR
Example: Rn-Npy1r-3UTR
Probe targets the 3' untranslated region only
Pan
Example: Pool
A mixture of multiple probe sets targeting multiple genes or transcripts

Enabling research, drug development (CDx) and diagnostics

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