An Nfic-Hedgehog Signaling Cascade Regulates Tooth Root Development

Liu Y, Feng J, Li J, Zhao H, Ho TV, Chai Y.
PMID: 26293299

Coordination between the Hertwig’s Epithelial Root Sheath (HERS) and apical papilla (AP) is crucial for proper tooth root development. The Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway and Nfic are both involved in tooth root development, however their relationship has yet to be elucidated. Here we establish a time course of mouse molar root development by histological staining of sections and demonstrate that Hh signaling is active before and during root development in the AP and HERS using Gli1 reporter mice. The proper pattern of Hh signaling activity in the AP is critical for the proliferation of dental mesenchymal cells, because either inhibition with Hh inhibitors or constitutive activation of Hh signaling activity in transgenic mice leads to decreased proliferation in the AP and shorter roots. Moreover, Hh activity is elevated in Nfic-/- mice, a root defect model, whereas RNA sequencing and in situ hybridization show that Hh attenuator Hhip is down-regulated. ChIP and RNAscope analyses suggest that Nfic binds to the promoter region of Hhip. Treatment of Nfic-/- mice with Hh inhibitor partially restores cell proliferation, AP growth and root development. Taken together, our results demonstrate that an Nfic-Hhip-Hh signaling pathway is critical for apical papilla growth and proper root formation. This discovery provides insight into the molecular mechanisms regulating tooth root development.

The ESCRT-III Protein CHMP1A Mediates Secretion of Sonic Hedgehog on a Distinctive Subtype of Extracellular Vesicles.

Cell Rep.

2018 Jul 24

Coulter ME, Dorobantu CM, Lodewijk GA, Delalande F, Cianferani S, Ganesh VS, Smith RS, Lim ET, Xu CS, Pang S, Wong ET, Lidov HGW, Calicchio ML, Yang E, Gonzalez DM, Schlaeger TM, Mochida GH, Hess H, Lee WA, Lehtinen MK, Kirchhausen T Haussler D Jacobs FMJ
PMID: 30044992 | DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2018.06.100

Endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) complex proteins regulate biogenesis and release of extracellular vesicles (EVs), which enable cell-to-cell communication in the nervous system essential for development and adult function. We recently showed human loss-of-function (LOF) mutations in ESCRT-III member CHMP1A cause autosomal recessive microcephaly with pontocerebellar hypoplasia, but its mechanism was unclear. Here, we show Chmp1a is required for progenitor proliferation in mouse cortex and cerebellum and progenitor maintenance in human cerebral organoids. In Chmp1a null mice, this defect is associated with impaired sonic hedgehog (Shh) secretion and intraluminal vesicle (ILV) formation in multivesicular bodies (MVBs). Furthermore, we show CHMP1A is important for release of an EV subtype that contains AXL, RAB18, and TMED10 (ART) and SHH. Our findings show CHMP1A loss impairs secretion of SHH on ART-EVs, providing molecular mechanistic insights into the role of ESCRT proteins and EVs in the brain.

Successful lung transplantation using an allograft from a COVID-19-recovered donor: a potential role for subgenomic RNA to guide organ utilization

American Journal of Transplantation

2022 Jan 01

Saharia, KK;Ramelli, SC;Stein, SR;Roder, AE;
| DOI: 10.1016/j.ajt.2022.09.001

Although the risk of SARS-CoV-2 transmission through lung transplantation from acutely infected donors is high, the risks of virus transmission and long-term lung allograft outcomes are not as well described when using pulmonary organs from COVID-19-recovered donors. We describe successful lung transplantation for a COVID-19-related lung injury using lungs from a COVID-19-recovered donor who was retrospectively found to have detectable genomic SARS-CoV-2 RNA in the lung tissue by multiple highly sensitive assays. However, SARS-CoV-2 subgenomic RNA (sgRNA), a marker of viral replication, was not detectable in the donor respiratory tissues. One year after lung transplantation, the recipient has a good functional status, walking 1 mile several times per week without the need for supplemental oxygen and without any evidence of donor-derived SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Our findings highlight the limitations of current clinical laboratory diagnostic assays in detecting the persistence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in the lung tissue. The persistence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in the donor tissue did not appear to represent active viral replication via sgRNA testing and, most importantly, did not negatively impact the allograft outcome in the first year after lung transplantation. sgRNA is easily performed and may be a useful assay for assessing viral infectivity in organs from donors with a recent infection.

Hedgehog Signaling Pathway Orchestrates Human Lung Branching Morphogenesis

International journal of molecular sciences

2022 May 09

Belgacemi, R;Danopoulos, S;Deutsch, G;Glass, I;Dormoy, V;Bellusci, S;Al Alam, D;
PMID: 35563656 | DOI: 10.3390/ijms23095265

The Hedgehog (HH) signaling pathway plays an essential role in mouse lung development. We hypothesize that the HH pathway is necessary for branching during human lung development and is impaired in pulmonary hypoplasia. Single-cell, bulk RNA-sequencing data, and human fetal lung tissues were analyzed to determine the spatiotemporal localization of HH pathway actors. Distal human lung segments were cultured in an air-liquid interface and treated with an SHH inhibitor (5E1) to determine the effect of HH inhibition on human lung branching, epithelial-mesenchymal markers, and associated signaling pathways in vitro. Our results showed an early and regulated expression of HH pathway components during human lung development. Inhibiting HH signaling caused a reduction in branching during development and dysregulated epithelial (SOX2, SOX9) and mesenchymal (ACTA2) progenitor markers. FGF and Wnt pathways were also disrupted upon HH inhibition. Finally, we demonstrated that HH signaling elements were downregulated in lung tissues of patients with a congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH). In this study, we show for the first time that HH signaling inhibition alters important genes and proteins required for proper branching of the human developing lung. Understanding the role of the HH pathway on human lung development could lead to the identification of novel therapeutic targets for childhood pulmonary diseases.

Pulmonary stromal expansion and intra-alveolar coagulation are primary causes of COVID-19 death

Heliyon

2021 May 01

Szekely, L;Bozoky, B;Bendek, M;Ostad, M;Lavignasse, P;Haag, L;Wu, J;Jing, X;Gupta, S;Saccon, E;Sönnerborg, A;Cao, Y;Björnstedt, M;Szakos, A;
PMID: 34056141 | DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07134

Most COVID-19 victims are old and die from unrelated causes. Here we present twelve complete autopsies, including two rapid autopsies of young patients where the cause of death was COVID-19 ARDS. The main virus induced pathology was in the lung parenchyma and not in the airways. Most coagulation events occurred in the intra-alveolar and not in the intra-vascular space and the few thrombi were mainly composed of aggregated thrombocytes. The dominant inflammatory response was the massive accumulation of CD163 + macrophages and the disappearance of T killer, NK and B-cells. The virus was replicating in the pneumocytes and macrophages but not in bronchial epithelium, endothelium, pericytes or stromal cells. The lung consolidations were produced by a massive regenerative response, stromal and epithelial proliferation and neovascularization. We suggest that thrombocyte aggregation inhibition, angiogenesis inhibition and general proliferation inhibition may have a roll in the treatment of advanced COVID-19 ARDS.

COVID-19 induces neuroinflammation and suppresses peroxisomes in the brain

Annals of neurology

2023 May 15

Roczkowsky, A;Limonta, D;Fernandes, JP;Branton, WG;Clarke, M;Hlavay, B;Noyce, RS;Joseph, JT;Ogando, NS;Das, SK;Elaish, M;Arbour, N;Evans, DH;Langdon, K;Hobman, TC;Power, C;
PMID: 37190821 | DOI: 10.1002/ana.26679

Peroxisome injury occurs in the central nervous system (CNS) during multiple virus infections that result in neurological disabilities. We investigated host neuroimmune responses and peroxisome biogenesis factors during SARS-CoV-2 infection using a multiplatform strategy.Brain tissues from COVID-19 (n=12) and other disease control (ODC) (n=12) patients, as well as primary human neural cells and Syrian hamsters, infected with a clinical variant of SARS-CoV-2, were investigated by ddPCR, RT-qPCR and immunodetection methods.SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected in the CNS of four patients with COVID-19 with viral protein (NSP3 and spike) immunodetection in the brainstem. Olfactory bulb, brainstem, and cerebrum from patients with COVID-19 showed induction of pro-inflammatory transcripts (IL8, IL18, CXCL10, NOD2) and cytokines (GM-CSF and IL-18) compared to CNS tissues from ODC patients (p<0.05). Peroxisome biogenesis factor transcripts (PEX3, PEX5L, PEX11β and PEX14) and proteins (PEX3, PEX14, PMP70) were suppressed in the CNS of COVID-19 patients compared to ODCs (p<0.05). SARS-CoV-2 infection of hamsters revealed viral RNA detection in the olfactory bulb at days 4 and 7 post-infection while inflammatory gene expression was upregulated in the cerebrum of infected animals by day 14 post-infection (p<0.05). Pex3 transcript levels together with catalase and PMP70 immunoreactivity were suppressed in the cerebrum of SARS-CoV-2 infected animals (p<0.05).COVID-19 induced sustained neuroinflammatory responses with peroxisome biogenesis factor suppression despite limited brainstem SARS-CoV-2 neurotropism in humans. These observations offer insights into developing biomarkers and therapies, while also implicating persistent peroxisome dysfunction as a contributor to the neurological post-acute sequelae of COVID-19. This article is protected by

Transmitted Fetal Immune Response in Cases of SARS-CoV-2 Infections during Pregnancy

Diagnostics

2022 Jan 19

González-Mesa, E;García-Fuentes, E;Carvia-Pontiasec, R;Lavado-Fernández, A;Cuenca-Marín, C;Suárez-Arana, M;Blasco-Alonso, M;Benítez-Lara, B;Mozas-Benítez, L;González-Cazorla, A;Egeberg-Neverdal, H;Jiménez-López, J;
| DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics12020245

(1) Background: Little is known about the effects of SARS-CoV-2 on the placenta, and whether the maternal inflammatory response is transmitted vertically. This research aims to provide information about the effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection on maternal and fetal immunity. (2) Methods: We have studied placental changes and humoral and cellular immunity in maternal and umbilical cord blood (UCB) samples from a group of pregnant women delivering after the diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy. IgG and IgM SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, Interleukin 1b (IL1b), Interleukin 6 (IL6), and gamma-Interferon (IFN-γ), have been studied in the UCB samples. Lymphocyte subsets were studied according to CD3, CD8, CD4, CD34, and invariant natural Killer T cells (iNKT) markers. We used in situ hybridization techniques for the detection of viral RNA in placentas. (3) Results: During the study period, 79 pregnant women and their corresponding newborns were recruited. The main gestational age at the time of delivery was 39.1 weeks (SD 1.3). We did not find traces of the SARS-CoV-2 virus RNA in any of the analyzed placental samples. Detectable concentrations of IgG anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, IL1b, IL6, and IFN-γ, in UCB were found in all cases, but IgM antibodies anti-ARS-CoV-2 were systematically undetectable. We found significant correlations between fetal CD3+ mononuclear cells and UCB IgG concentrations. We also found significant correlations between UCB IgG concentrations and fetal CD3+/CD4+, as well as CD3+/CD8+ T cells subsets. We also discovered that fetal CD3+/CD8+ cell counts were significantly higher in those cases with placental infarctions. (4) Conclusion: we have not verified the placental transfer of SARS-CoV-2. However, we have discovered that a significant immune response is being transmitted to the fetus in cases of SARS-CoV-2 maternal infection.

The SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1.529 Omicron virus causes attenuated infection and disease in mice and hamsters

Research square

2021 Dec 29

Diamond, M;Halfmann, P;Maemura, T;Iwatsuki-Horimoto, K;Iida, S;Kiso, M;Scheaffer, S;Darling, T;Joshi, A;Loeber, S;Foster, S;Ying, B;Whitener, B;Floyd, K;Ujie, M;Nakajima, N;Ito, M;Wright, R;Uraki, R;Li, R;Sakai, Y;Liu, Y;Larson, D;Osorio, J;Hernandez-Ortiz, J;ÄŒiuoderis, K;Florek, K;Patel, M;Bateman, A;Odle, A;Wong, LY;Wang, Z;Edara, VV;Chong, Z;Thackray, L;Ueki, H;Yamayoshi, S;Imai, M;Perlman, S;Webby, R;Seder, R;Suthar, M;Garcia-Sastre, A;Schotsaert, M;Suzuki, T;Boon, A;Kawaoka, Y;Douek, D;Moliva, J;Sullivan, N;Gagne, M;Ransier, A;Case, J;Jeevan, T;Franks, J;Fabrizio, T;DeBeauchamp, J;Kercher, L;Seiler, P;Singh, G;Warang, P;Gonzalez-Reiche, AS;Sordillo, E;van Bakel, H;Simon, V;
PMID: 34981044 | DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-1211792/v1

Despite the development and deployment of antibody and vaccine countermeasures, rapidly-spreading SARS-CoV-2 variants with mutations at key antigenic sites in the spike protein jeopardize their efficacy. The recent emergence of B.1.1.529, the Omicron variant1,2, which has more than 30 mutations in the spike protein, has raised concerns for escape from protection by vaccines and therapeutic antibodies. A key test for potential countermeasures against B.1.1.529 is their activity in pre-clinical rodent models of respiratory tract disease. Here, using the collaborative network of the SARS-CoV-2 Assessment of Viral Evolution (SAVE) program of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), we evaluated the ability of multiple B.1.1.529 Omicron isolates to cause infection and disease in immunocompetent and human ACE2 (hACE2) expressing mice and hamsters. Despite modeling and binding data suggesting that B.1.1.529 spike can bind more avidly to murine ACE2, we observed attenuation of infection in 129, C57BL/6, and BALB/c mice as compared with previous SARS-CoV-2 variants, with limited weight loss and lower viral burden in the upper and lower respiratory tracts. Although K18-hACE2 transgenic mice sustained infection in the lungs, these animals did not lose weight. In wild-type and hACE2 transgenic hamsters, lung infection, clinical disease, and pathology with B.1.1.529 also were milder compared to historical isolates or other SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern. Overall, experiments from multiple independent laboratories of the SAVE/NIAID network with several different B.1.1.529 isolates demonstrate attenuated lung disease in rodents, which parallels preliminary human clinical data.

Factors associated with myocardial SARS-CoV-2 infection, myocarditis, and cardiac inflammation in patients with COVID-19

Modern pathology : an official journal of the United States and Canadian Academy of Pathology, Inc

2021 Mar 17

Bearse, M;Hung, YP;Krauson, AJ;Bonanno, L;Boyraz, B;Harris, CK;Helland, TL;Hilburn, CF;Hutchison, B;Jobbagy, S;Marshall, MS;Shepherd, DJ;Villalba, JA;Delfino, I;Mendez-Pena, J;Chebib, I;Newton-Cheh, C;Stone, JR;
PMID: 33727695 | DOI: 10.1038/s41379-021-00790-1

COVID-19 has been associated with cardiac injury and dysfunction. While both myocardial inflammatory cell infiltration and myocarditis with myocyte injury have been reported in patients with fatal COVID-19, clinical-pathologic correlations remain limited. The objective was to determine the relationships between cardiac pathological changes in patients dying from COVID-19 and cardiac infection by SARS-CoV-2, laboratory measurements, clinical features, and treatments. In a retrospective study, 41 consecutive autopsies of patients with fatal COVID-19 were analyzed for the associations between cardiac inflammation, myocarditis, cardiac infection by SARS-CoV-2, clinical features, laboratory measurements, and treatments. Cardiac infection was assessed by in situ hybridization and NanoString transcriptomic profiling. Cardiac infection by SARS-CoV-2 was present in 30/41 cases: virus+ with myocarditis (n = 4), virus+ without myocarditis (n = 26), and virus- without myocarditis (n = 11). In the cases with cardiac infection, SARS-CoV-2+ cells in the myocardium were rare, with a median density of 1 cell/cm2. Virus+ cases showed higher densities of myocardial CD68+ macrophages and CD3+ lymphocytes, as well as more electrocardiographic changes (23/27 vs 4/10; P = 0.01). Myocarditis was more prevalent with IL-6 blockade than with nonbiologic immunosuppression, primarily glucocorticoids (2/3 vs 0/14; P = 0.02). Overall, SARS-CoV-2 cardiac infection was less prevalent in patients treated with nonbiologic immunosuppression (7/14 vs 21/24; P = 0.02). Myocardial macrophage and lymphocyte densities overall were positively correlated with the duration of symptoms but not with underlying comorbidities. In summary, cardiac infection with SARS-CoV-2 is common among patients dying from COVID-19 but often with only rare infected cells. Cardiac infection by SARS-CoV-2 is associated with more cardiac inflammation and electrocardiographic changes. Nonbiologic immunosuppression is associated with lower incidences of myocarditis and cardiac infection by SARS-CoV-2.

Murine Coronavirus Disease 2019 Lethality Is Characterized by Lymphoid Depletion Associated with Suppressed Antigen-Presenting Cell Functionality

The American journal of pathology

2023 Apr 05

Lee, YJ;Seok, SH;Lee, NY;Choi, HJ;Lee, YW;Chang, HJ;Hwang, JY;On, DI;Noh, HA;Lee, SB;Kwon, HK;Yun, JW;Shin, JS;Seo, JY;Nam, KT;Lee, H;Lee, HY;Park, JW;Seong, JK;
PMID: 37024046 | DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2023.03.008

The disease severity of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) varies considerably from asymptomatic to serious, with fatal complications associated with dysregulation of innate and adaptive immunity. Lymphoid depletion in lymphoid tissues and lymphocytopenia have both been associated with poor disease outcomes in patients with COVID-19, but the mechanisms involved remain elusive. In this study, human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (hACE2) transgenic mouse models susceptible to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection were used to investigate the characteristics and determinants of lethality associated with the lymphoid depletion observed in SARS-CoV-2 infection. The lethality of Wuhan SARS-CoV-2 infection in K18-hACE2 mice was characterized by severe lymphoid depletion and apoptosis in lymphoid tissues related to fatal neuroinvasion. The lymphoid depletion was associated with a decreased number of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and their suppressed functionality below basal levels. Lymphoid depletion with reduced APC function was a specific feature observed in SARS-CoV-2 infection but not in influenza A infection and had the greatest prognostic value for disease severity in murine COVID-19. Comparison of transgenic mouse models resistant and susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection revealed that suppressed APC function could be determined by the hACE2 expression pattern and interferon-related signaling. Thus, we demonstrated that lymphoid depletion associated with suppressed APC function characterizes the lethality of COVID-19 mouse models. Our data also suggest a potential therapeutic approach to prevent the severe progression of COVID-19 by enhancing APC functionality.

Does SARS-CoV-2 infect cardiomyocytes directly? Yes, it does

Medical Research Journal

2021 Sep 07

Ryszewska, A;Niewiadomski, P;
| DOI: 10.5603/mrj.a2021.0038

Introduction: COVID-19 (Coronavirus disease 2019) appeared in Wuhan, China, at the ending of 2019. The SARS-CoV-2 virus which causes the illness has spread all over the world and caused a pandemic. The first target of the virus is the respiratory tract; however, the COVID-19 may present different types of course. It is known that the SARS-CoV-2 affects multiple organs, including the heart. Cardiac manifestations of COVID-19 include myocarditis, myocardial infarction, heart failure, acute coronar... Morey syndrome, arrhythmia. The authors know about the patients who had only cardiovascular complications due to the COVID-19. Several mechanisms of heart injury are considered and so is the direct infection. Aim of the study: The present review aimed to find out if the SARS-CoV-2 may infect the heart directly and in which mechanism. The review is an information collection considering the SARS-CoV-2 impact on the heart. Material and methods: The authors have made research using the PubMed search engine to find studies and case reports considering the cardiovascular implications of COVID-19. The signs and symptoms in patients with cardiac implications were studied. The authors have also checked if studies explaining does the SARS-CoV-2 affects the heart directly were conducted. Results: SARS-CoV-2 brings several cardiovascular signs such as changes in imaging tests and elevation of several laboratory markers. The changes may suggest myocarditis or mimic cardiac infarction. The SARS-CoV-2 may affect cardiomyocytes indirectly by causing hypoxia and cytokine storm. As the heart tissue presents a high level of ACE2 which is the target of the virus, the SARS-CoV may infect cardiomyocytes directly. The hypothesis was confirmed in endomyocardial biopsies, autopsy, and in vitro studies. Conclusions: The SARS-CoV-2 impacts several organs. The heart may be injured indirectly (hypoxia and cytokine storm) and directly (ACE2 present in the heart), which gives consequences in a clinical course. The direct injury was confirmed in a variety of ways. Less

Visualising SARS-CoV-2 infection of the lung in deceased COVID-19 patients

EBioMedicine

2023 May 22

Van Slambrouck, J;Khan, M;Verbeken, E;Choi, S;Geudens, V;Vanluyten, C;Feys, S;Vanhulle, E;Wollants, E;Vermeire, K;De Fays, C;Aversa, L;Kaes, J;Van Raemdonck, D;Vos, R;Vanaudenaerde, B;De Hertogh, G;Wauters, E;Wauters, J;Ceulemans, LJ;Mombaerts, P;
PMID: 37224768 | DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2023.104608

SARS-CoV-2 is a single-stranded positive-sense RNA virus. Several negative-sense SARS-CoV-2 RNA species, both full-length genomic and subgenomic, are produced transiently during viral replication. Methodologies for rigorously characterising cell tropism and visualising ongoing viral replication at single-cell resolution in histological sections are needed to assess the virological and pathological phenotypes of future SARS-CoV-2 variants. We aimed to provide a robust methodology for examining the human lung, the major target organ of this RNA virus.A prospective cohort study took place at the University Hospitals Leuven in Leuven, Belgium. Lung samples were procured postmortem from 22 patients who died from or with COVID-19. Tissue sections were fluorescently stained with the ultrasensitive single-molecule RNA in situ hybridisation platform of RNAscope combined with immunohistochemistry followed by confocal imaging.We visualised perinuclear RNAscope signal for negative-sense SARS-CoV-2 RNA species in ciliated cells of the bronchiolar epithelium of a patient who died with COVID-19 in the hyperacute phase of the infection, and in ciliated cells of a primary culture of human airway epithelium that had been infected experimentally with SARS-CoV-2. In patients who died between 5 and 13 days after diagnosis of the infection, we detected RNAscope signal for positive-sense but not for negative-sense SARS-CoV-2 RNA species in pneumocytes, macrophages, and among debris in the alveoli. SARS-CoV-2 RNA levels decreased after a disease course of 2-3 weeks, concomitant with a histopathological change from exudative to fibroproliferative diffuse alveolar damage. Taken together, our confocal images illustrate the complexities stemming from traditional approaches in the literature to characterise cell tropism and visualise ongoing viral replication solely by the surrogate parameters of nucleocapsid-immunoreactive signal or in situ hybridisation for positive-sense SARS-CoV-2 RNA species.Confocal imaging of human lung sections stained fluorescently with commercially available RNAscope probes for negative-sense SARS-CoV-2 RNA species enables the visualisation of viral replication at single-cell resolution during the acute phase of the infection in COVID-19. This methodology will be valuable for research on future SARS-CoV-2 variants and other respiratory viruses.Max Planck Society, Coronafonds UZ/KU Leuven, European Society for Organ Transplantation.

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	Description
sense Example: Hs-LAG3-sense	Standard probes for RNA detection are in antisense. Sense probe is reverse complent to the corresponding antisense probe.
Intron# Example: Mm-Htt-intron2	Probe targets the indicated intron in the target gene, commonly used for pre-mRNA detection
Pool/Pan Example: Hs-CD3-pool (Hs-CD3D, Hs-CD3E, Hs-CD3G)	A mixture of multiple probe sets targeting multiple genes or transcripts
No-XSp Example: Hs-PDGFB-No-XMm	Does not cross detect with the species (Sp)
XSp Example: Rn-Pde9a-XMm	designed to cross detect with the species (Sp)
O# Example: Mm-Islr-O1	Alternative design targeting different regions of the same transcript or isoforms
CDS Example: Hs-SLC31A-CDS	Probe targets the protein-coding sequence only
EnEm	Probe targets exons n and m
En-Em	Probe targets region from exon n to exon m
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tvn Example: Hs-LEPR-tv1	Designed to target transcript variant n
ORF Example: Hs-ACVRL1-ORF	Probe targets open reading frame
UTR Example: Hs-HTT-UTR-C3	Probe targets the untranslated region (non-protein-coding region) only
5UTR Example: Hs-GNRHR-5UTR	Probe targets the 5' untranslated region only
3UTR Example: Rn-Npy1r-3UTR	Probe targets the 3' untranslated region only
Pan Example: Pool	A mixture of multiple probe sets targeting multiple genes or transcripts

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