Probes for VGLUT2

Mechanical allodynia (MA) represents one prevalent symptom of chronic pain. Previously we and others have identified spinal and brain circuits that transmit or modulate the initial establishment of MA. However, brain-derived descending pathways that control the laterality and duration of MA are still poorly understood. Here we report that the contralateral brain-to-spinal circuits, from Oprm1 neurons in the lateral parabrachial nucleus (lPBNOprm1), via Pdyn neurons in the dorsal medial regions of hypothalamus (dmHPdyn), to the spinal dorsal horn (SDH), act to prevent nerve injury from inducing contralateral MA and reduce the duration of bilateral MA induced by capsaicin. Ablating/silencing dmH-projecting lPBNOprm1 neurons or SDH-projecting dmHPdyn neurons, deleting Dyn peptide from dmH, or blocking spinal κ-opioid receptors all led to long-lasting bilateral MA. Conversely, activation of dmHPdyn neurons or their axonal terminals in SDH can suppress sustained bilateral MA induced by lPBN lesion.

Corticospinal tract (CST) neurons innervate the deep spinal dorsal horn to sustain chronic neuropathic pain. The majority of neurons targeted by the CST are interneurons expressing the transcription factor c-Maf. Here, we used intersectional genetics to decipher the function of these neurons in dorsal horn sensory circuits. We find that excitatory c-Maf (c-MafEX) neurons receive sensory input mainly from myelinated fibers and target deep dorsal horn parabrachial projection neurons and superficial dorsal horn neurons, thereby connecting non-nociceptive input to nociceptive output structures. Silencing c-MafEX neurons has little effect in healthy mice but alleviates mechanical hypersensitivity in neuropathic mice. c-MafEX neurons also receive input from inhibitory c-Maf and parvalbumin neurons, and compromising inhibition by these neurons caused mechanical hypersensitivity and spontaneous aversive behaviors reminiscent of c-MafEX neuron activation. Our study identifies c-MafEX neurons as normally silent second-order nociceptors that become engaged in pathological pain signaling upon loss of inhibitory control.

Although bradykinesia, tremor and rigidity are the hallmark motor defects in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD), patients also experience motor learning impairments and non-motor symptoms such as depression1. The neural circuit basis for these different symptoms of PD are not well understood. Although current treatments are effective for locomotion deficits in PD2,3, therapeutic strategies targeting motor learning deficits and non-motor symptoms are lacking4-6. Here we found that distinct parafascicular (PF) thalamic subpopulations project to caudate putamen (CPu), subthalamic nucleus (STN) and nucleus accumbens (NAc). Whereas PF→CPu and PF→STN circuits are critical for locomotion and motor learning, respectively, inhibition of the PF→NAc circuit induced a depression-like state. Whereas chemogenetically manipulating CPu-projecting PF neurons led to a long-term restoration of locomotion, optogenetic long-term potentiation (LTP) at PF→STN synapses restored motor learning behaviour in an acute mouse model of PD. Furthermore, activation of NAc-projecting PF neurons rescued depression-like phenotypes. Further, we identified nicotinic acetylcholine receptors capable of modulating PF circuits to rescue different PD phenotypes. Thus, targeting PF thalamic circuits may be an effective strategy for treating motor and non-motor deficits in PD.

Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC)-expressing neurons in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus represent key regulators of metabolic homeostasis. Electrophysiological and single-cell sequencing experiments have revealed a remarkable degree of heterogeneity of these neurons. However, the exact molecular basis and functional consequences of this heterogeneity have not yet been addressed. Here, we have developed new mouse models in which intersectional Cre/Dre-dependent recombination allowed for successful labeling, translational profiling and functional characterization of distinct POMC neurons expressing the leptin receptor (Lepr) and glucagon like peptide 1 receptor (Glp1r). Our experiments reveal that POMCLepr+ and POMCGlp1r+ neurons represent largely nonoverlapping subpopulations with distinct basic electrophysiological properties. They exhibit a specific anatomical distribution within the arcuate nucleus and differentially express receptors for energy-state communicating hormones and neurotransmitters. Finally, we identify a differential ability of these subpopulations to suppress feeding. Collectively, we reveal a notably distinct functional microarchitecture of critical metabolism-regulatory neurons.

The motivation to eat is not only shaped by nutrition but also competed by external stimuli including pain. How the mouse hypothalamus, the feeding regulation center, integrates nociceptive inputs to modulate feeding is unclear. Within the key nociception relay center parabrachial nucleus (PBN), we demonstrated that neurons projecting to the lateral hypothalamus (LHPBN) are nociceptive yet distinct from danger-encoding central amygdala-projecting (CeAPBN) neurons. Activation of LHPBN strongly suppressed feeding by limiting eating frequency and also reduced motivation to work for food reward. Refined approach-avoidance paradigm revealed that suppression of LHPBN, but not CeAPBN, sustained motivation to obtain food. The effect of LHPBN neurons on feeding was reversed by suppressing downstream LHVGluT2 neurons. Thus, distinct from a circuit for fear and escape responses, LHPBN neurons channel nociceptive signals to LHVGluT2 neurons to suppress motivational drive for feeding. Our study provides a new perspective in understanding feeding regulation by external competing stimuli.

Sodium deficiency elevates aldosterone, which in addition to epithelial tissues acts on the brain to promote dysphoric symptoms and salt intake. Aldosterone boosts the activity of neurons that express 11-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (HSD2), a hallmark of aldosterone-sensitive cells. To better characterize these neurons, we combine immunolabeling and in situ hybridization with fate mapping and Cre-conditional axon tracing in mice. Many cells throughout the brain have a developmental history of Hsd11b2 expression, but in the adult brain one small brainstem region with a leaky blood-brain barrier contains HSD2 neurons. These neurons express Hsd11b2, Nr3c2 (mineralocorticoid receptor), Agtr1a (angiotensin receptor), Slc17a6 (vesicular glutamate transporter 2), Phox2b, and Nxph4; many also express Cartpt or Lmx1b. No HSD2 neurons express cholinergic, monoaminergic, or several other neuropeptidergic markers. Their axons project to the parabrachial complex (PB), where they intermingle with AgRP-immunoreactive axons to form dense terminal fields overlapping FoxP2 neurons in the central lateral subnucleus (PBcL) and pre-locus coeruleus (pLC). Their axons also extend to the forebrain, intermingling with AgRP- and CGRP-immunoreactive axons to form dense terminals surrounding GABAergic neurons in the ventrolateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTvL). Sparse axons target the periaqueductal gray, ventral tegmental area, lateral hypothalamic area, paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus, and central nucleus of the amygdala. Dual retrograde tracing revealed that largely separate HSD2 neurons project to pLC/PB or BSTvL. This projection pattern raises the possibility that a subset of HSD2 neurons promotes the dysphoric, anorexic, and anhedonic symptoms of hyperaldosteronism via AgRP-inhibited relay neurons in PB.

Nucleus incertus (NI) is a brainstem structure involved in the control of arousal, stress responses and locomotor activity. It was reported recently that NI neurons express the dopamine type 2 (D2) receptor that belongs to the D2-like receptor (D2R) family, and that D2R activation in the NI decreased locomotor activity. In this study, using multiplex in situ hybridization, we observed that GABAergic and glutamatergic NI neurons express D2 receptor mRNA, and that D2 receptor mRNA-positive neurons belong to partially overlapping relaxin-3- and cholecystokinin-positive NI neuronal populations. Our immunohistochemical and viral-based retrograde tract-tracing studies revealed a dense innervation of the NI area by fibers containing the catecholaminergic biosynthesis enzymes, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH), and indicated the major sources of the catecholaminergic innervation of the NI as the Darkschewitsch, raphe and hypothalamic A13 nuclei. Furthermore, using whole-cell patch clamp recordings, we demonstrated that D2R activation by quinpirole produced excitatory and inhibitory influences on neuronal activity in the NI, and that both effects were postsynaptic in nature. Moreover, the observed effects were cell-type specific, as type I NI neurons were either excited or inhibited, whereas type II NI neurons were mainly excited by D2R activation. Our results reveal that rat NI receives a strong catecholaminergic innervation and suggest that catecholamines acting within the NI are involved in the control of diverse processes, including locomotor activity, social interaction and nociceptive signaling. Our data also strengthen the hypothesis that the NI acts as a hub integrating arousal-related neuronal information.