Probes for INS

African green monkeys (AGMs) are a natural host of SIV that do not develop simian AIDS. Adult AGMs naturally have low numbers of CD4+T cells and a large population of MHC class II-restricted CD8αα T cells that are generated through CD4 downregulation in CD4+ T cells. In this article, we study the functional profiles and SIV infection status in vivo of CD4+ T cells, CD8αα T cells, and CD8αβ T cells in lymph nodes, peripheral blood, and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of AGMs and rhesus macaques (in which CD4 downregulation is not observed). We show that, although CD8αα T cells in AGMs maintain functions associated with CD4+ T cells (including Th follicular functionality in lymphoid tissues and Th2 responses in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid), they also accumulate functions normally attributed to canonical CD8+ T cells. These hyperfunctional CD8αα T cells are found to circulate peripherally, as well as reside within the lymphoid tissue. Due to their unique combination of CD4 and CD8 T cell effector functions, these CD4- CD8αα T cells are likely able to serve as an immunophenotype capable of Th1, follicular Th, and CTL functionalities, yet they are unable to be infected by SIV. These data demonstrate the ambiguity of CD4/CD8 expression in dictating the functional capacities of T cells and suggest that accumulation of hyperfunctional CD8αα T cells in AGMs may lead to tissue-specific antiviral immune responses in lymphoid follicles that limit SIV replication in this particular anatomical niche.

The exact cause of neurocognitive dysfunction in HIV-positive patients despite successful control of the infection in the periphery is not completely understood. One suggested mechanism is a vicious cycle of microglial activation and release of proinflammatory chemokines/cytokines that eventually leads to neuronal loss and dysfunction. However, the exact role of microglial activation in the earliest stages of the infection with high cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) viral loads (VL) is unclear. In this study, we imaged the translocator protein (TSPO), a mitochondrial membrane receptor known to be upregulated in activated microglia and macrophages, in rhesus macaques before and multiple times after inoculation with a neurotropic simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) strain (SIVsm804E), using 18F-DPA714 positron emission tomography (PET). The whole-brain standardized uptake values of TSPO at equilibrium reflecting total binding (SUVT) and binding potentials (BPND) were calculated and correlated with CSF and serum markers of disease, and a corresponding postmortem immunostaining analysis was also performed. SUVT was found to be inversely correlated with both CSF VL and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1) levels. In SIV-infected macaques with very high CSF VL at necropsy (>106 copies/ml), we found decreased TSPO binding by PET, and this was supported by immunostaining which showed glial and neuronal apoptosis rather than microglial activation. On the other hand, with only moderately elevated CSF VL (∼104 copies/ml), we found increased TSPO binding as well as focal and diffuse microglial activation on immunostaining. Our results in the SIV-infected macaque model provide insights into the relationship between HIV neuropathology and CSF VL at various stages of the disease.IMPORTANCE Neurological and cognitive problems are a common complication of HIV infection and are prevalent even in treated individuals. Although the molecular processes underlying brain involvement with HIV are not completely understood, inflammation is suspected to play a significant role. Our work presents an in vivo assessment of neuroinflammation in an animal model of HIV, the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-infected rhesus macaque. Using positron emission tomography (PET) imaging, we identified changes in brain inflammation after inoculation with SIV over time. Interestingly, we found decreased binding of the PET ligand in the presence of very high cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) viral loads. These findings were supported by immunostaining which showed marked glial loss instead of inflammation. This study provides insight into glial and neuronal changes associated with very high CSF viral load and could reflect similar changes occurring in HIV-infected patients.

Liver disease is a leading contributor to morbidity and mortality during HIV infection, despite the use of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). The precise mechanisms of liver disease during HIV infection are poorly understood partially due to the difficulty in obtaining human liver samples as well as the presence of confounding factors (e.g. hepatitis co-infection, alcohol use). Utilizing the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) macaque model, a controlled study was conducted to evaluate the factors associated with liver inflammation and the impact of cART. We observed an increase in hepatic macrophages during untreated SIV infection that was associated with a number of inflammatory and fibrosis mediators (TNFα, CCL3, TGFβ). Moreover, an upregulation in the macrophage chemoattractant factor CCL2 was detected in the livers of SIV-infected macaques that coincided with an increase in the number of activated CD16+ monocyte/macrophages and T cells expressing the cognate receptor CCR2. Expression of Mac387 on monocyte/macrophages further indicated that these cells recently migrated to the liver. The hepatic macrophage and T cell levels strongly correlated with liver SIV DNA levels, and were not associated with the levels of 16S bacterial DNA. Utilizing in situ hybridization, SIV-infected cells were found primarily within portal triads, and were identified as T cells. Microarray analysis identified a strong antiviral transcriptomic signature in the liver during SIV infection. In contrast, macaques treated with cART exhibited lower levels of liver macrophages and had a substantial, but not complete, reduction in their inflammatory profile. In addition, residual SIV DNA and bacteria 16S DNA were detected in the livers during cART, implicating the liver as a site on-going immune activation during antiretroviral therapy. These findings provide mechanistic insights regarding how SIV infection promotes liver inflammation through macrophage recruitment, with implications for in HIV-infected individuals.

Limited longitudinal data exist on the effect of HIV on adipose tissue (AT). We found an increase in CD4+ cells and detectable SHIV-RNA in AT during acute SHIV infection. SHIV-RNA+ cells were rare, suggesting that AT is unlikely to be a major source of productively infected cells in SHIV infection.