Probes for INS

Preterm birth results in low nephron endowment and increased risk of acute kidney injury (AKI) and chronic kidney disease (CKD). To understand the pathogenesis of AKI and CKD in preterm humans, we generated novel mouse models with a 30-70% reduction in nephron number by inhibiting or deleting Ret tyrosine kinase in the developing ureteric bud. These mice developed glomerular and tubular hypertrophy followed by the transition to CKD, recapitulating the renal pathological changes seen in humans born preterm. We injected neonatal mice with gentamicin, a ubiquitous nephrotoxic exposure in preterm infants, and detected more severe proximal tubular injury in mice with low nephron number compared to controls with normal nephron number. Mice with low nephron number have reduced proliferative repair with more rapid development of CKD. Furthermore, mice had more profound inflammation with highly elevated levels of MCP-1 and CXCL10, produced in part by damaged proximal tubules. Our study directly links low nephron endowment with postnatal renal hypertrophy, which in this model is maladaptive and results in CKD. Underdeveloped kidneys are more susceptible to gentamicin-induced AKI, suggesting that AKI in the setting of low nephron number is more severe and further increases the risk of CKD in this vulnerable population.

The molecular diversity of glia in the human hippocampus and their temporal dynamics over the lifespan remain largely unknown. Here, we performed single-nucleus RNA sequencing to generate a transcriptome atlas of the human hippocampus across the postnatal lifespan. Detailed analyses of astrocytes, oligodendrocyte lineages, and microglia identified subpopulations with distinct molecular signatures and revealed their association with specific physiological functions, age-dependent changes in abundance, and disease relevance. We further characterized spatiotemporal heterogeneity of GFAP-enriched astrocyte subpopulations in the hippocampal formation using immunohistology. Leveraging glial subpopulation classifications as a reference map, we revealed the diversity of glia differentiated from human pluripotent stem cells and identified dysregulated genes and pathological processes in specific glial subpopulations in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Together, our study significantly extends our understanding of human glial diversity, population dynamics across the postnatal lifespan, and dysregulation in AD and provides a reference atlas for stem-cell-based glial differentiation.

Acute kidney injury (AKI), commonly caused by ischemia, sepsis, or nephrotoxic insult, is associated with increased mortality and a heightened risk of chronic kidney disease (CKD). AKI results in the dysfunction or death of proximal tubule cells (PTCs), triggering a poorly understood autologous cellular repair program. Defective repair associates with a long-term transition to CKD. We performed a mild-to-moderate ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) to model injury responses reflective of kidney injury in a variety of clinical settings, including kidney transplant surgery. Single-nucleus RNA sequencing of genetically labeled injured PTCs at 7-d ("early") and 28-d ("late") time points post-IRI identified specific gene and pathway activity in the injury-repair transition. In particular, we identified Vcam1 +/Ccl2 + PTCs at a late injury stage distinguished by marked activation of NF-κB-, TNF-, and AP-1-signaling pathways. This population of PTCs showed features of a senescence-associated secretory phenotype but did not exhibit G2/M cell cycle arrest, distinct from other reports of maladaptive PTCs following kidney injury. Fate-mapping experiments identified spatially and temporally distinct origins for these cells. At the cortico-medullary boundary (CMB), where injury initiates, the majority of Vcam1 +/Ccl2 + PTCs arose from early replicating PTCs. In contrast, in cortical regions, only a subset of Vcam1 +/Ccl2 + PTCs could be traced to early repairing cells, suggesting late-arising sites of secondary PTC injury. Together, these data indicate even moderate IRI is associated with a lasting injury, which spreads from the CMB to cortical regions. Remaining failed-repair PTCs are likely triggers for chronic disease progression.

Brain macrophages include microglia in the parenchyma, border-associated macrophages in the meningeal-choroid plexus-perivascular space, and monocyte-derived macrophages that infiltrate the brain under various disease conditions. The vast heterogeneity of these cells has been elucidated over the last decade using revolutionary multiomics technologies. As such, we can now start to define these various macrophage populations according to their ontogeny and their diverse functional programs during brain development, homeostasis and disease pathogenesis. In this review, we first outline the critical roles played by brain macrophages during development and healthy aging. We then discuss how brain macrophages might undergo reprogramming and contribute to neurodegenerative disorders, autoimmune diseases, and glioma. Finally, we speculate about the most recent and ongoing discoveries that are prompting translational attempts to leverage brain macrophages as prognostic markers or therapeutic targets for diseases that affect the brain.